- There has always been corruption
By: Raj Kumar Singh
Corruption is as old as the human society itself. It exists in every society.Political or governmental corruption has been found in all bureaucracies and in all periods of political development. What differs is its degree, which is not uniform at all times or under all conditions. It is also obviously more common in some societies than in others and more common at some times in the evolution of a society than at other times. In recent times corruption became a “hot issue”, and its tentacles have become not only widespread but also far more serious. It has become very serious both in developed and developing countries. Even the international organisations are busy in arranging scholarly debates on its causes and consequences because it is not only a human issue but a developmental as well as social and economic one.
What is corruption?
Corruption is rampant and all pervading. Everyone knows it, everyone sees it, every moment of our life; wherever we go, it is present in one form or another. The challenge facing corruption analysis begins with defining it. Most people know corruption when they see it. The problem is that different people see it differently. The word is often used loosely in a very narrow sense and often used with a wide connotation, but somewhat confined to morals or public offences. The etymology of the word can be traced back to a Latin word meaning “to break”, which means that something is broken, such as, a moral or social code of conduct and more importantly the violation of any law or administrative rule. Apart from outright graft or bribery, the use, abuse and non-use of power, legal or political, for personal or private gain to oneself or others not rightfully entitled, does cover the various hues and nuances of corruption. It includes all improper or selfish exercise of power and influence attached to a public office or to a special position one occupies in public life.
In pre-democratic societies, where power rested on lineage and birth, corruption was not a salient issue because the actions of the rulers are perceived to be legitimate. But when politics emanate from the collective activity of the public and where the power of politicians is based on public consent, corruption takes a newer dimension
In political terminology there is no internationally accepted definition of corruption. It depends upon the state of awareness, education, customs and contention, ethics, culture, state of economic development and legal framework over the interest of the society. A high level of corruption is the result of wide divergence between the attitudes, aims and the methods of the government of a country and those of the society in which they operate, in particular, of the procedures and aims of the government which put particular groups of the population at a special disadvantage. In political context the word corruption has two aspects – social and political. The social aspect includes social behaviour, moral and religious while the political aspect implies political and administrative or politico-administrative. Social corruption includes breach of social customs, habits, creeds affecting people; sexual harassment, creation of social evils and so on. The path of corruption has become clear and smooth when democratically elected people have come to constitute the administrative machinery and overtly or covertly indulge in corrupt practices.
Large effects on society: As a social phenomenon corruption has become so widespread that it has started eating into the vitals of our economy, our polity and our society. From the practical viewpoint, corruption as defined by the 19th Conference of European Ministers of Justice, in Malta in 1994, seems to serve the overall purpose, ‘Bribery and other behaviour in relation to persons entrusted with responsibilities in public or private sector which violates their duties that follow from their status as a public official, private employee, independent agent or other relationship of that kind and is aimed at obtaining undue advantages of any kind for themselves or others.
There is also an attempt by some to explain corruption as a process by which members of society can manipulate a political system which is unable to cope with the demands made upon it. They explain corruption within the framework of the ‘leading’ and ‘lagging’ classes existing within any society undergoing rapid social change, and very much divided in values and allegiances. In the situation who gets what from corruption depends in large part on the nature of both the political system and the political elite.
Corruption takes place where there is a meeting of opportunity and inclination. Three forms of corruption, parochial, market and systematic, are dominant in government organisations. Parochial corruption represents a situation where only ties of kinship, affection, caste and so forth determines access to the favour of power holders, while market corruption signifies a virtually impersonal process in which influence is accorded to those who can pay the most regardless of who they are. But systematic corruption is primarily a political phenomenon and those in power use the government to transfer illicit benefits to themselves or to the clients, that the governing elite will seek to expand the flow of illicit benefits through official channels. The presence of corruption is an important hindrance to economic growth and progressive social change.
Antecedents of Corruption: The problem is all the more important in developing countries because high political corruption would impede the establishment of a political order and the stability of political institutions and the legitimacy of the political class. In pre-democratic societies, where power rested on lineage and birth, corruption was not a salient issue because the actions of the rulers are perceived to be legitimate. But when politics emanate from the collective activity of the public and where the power of politicians is based on public consent, corruption takes a newer dimension. Corruption, as agreed by all, is pervasive in all societies, though in different degrees and forms. Corruption inheres in all social systems, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism. It affects all classes; all state organisations, monarchies and republics; all situations in war and peace; in all age groups; both sexes and all times; ancient, medieval and modern.
Political issues– related corruption remained prevalent during the ancient and medieval period in Egyptian, Babylonian and Hebrew societies where judges did not hesitate to receive bribes. In Greece the growth of corruption was attributed to the increase of economic activity and political apathy. In ancient Rome corrupt practices prevailed and bribery was a regular source of income for those who were in charge of issuing contracts of public works; however, the prevalence of wide-scale corruption seems to have been the consequence of an unwieldy electoral system which derived from history. During the medieval times corruption manifested itself in Rome in the form of extortion of revenue by the local and central officials and the perversion of justice. Those who were in the service of the kings and feudal barons became instrumental in the collection of illegal money. Even in the period of exploration and colonisation, corruption took the same form as under the Roman Republic. Other countries alike, in the colonial days of British rule in India there was a systematic corruption which involved almost all officials starting from the Governor down to the lowest revenue official. About the British period it is commonly said that from the Governor down to the meanest factor, people came to India not for the “good but for the “goods” of the country.”
The author is head of the Political Science Department, BNMU, Saharsa, Bihar, India. He can be contacted at r[email protected]
